DPBioY2 - 2020 - 6.3 & 11.1 Defence against infectious diseases and Antibody production and vaccination
DPBioY2 - 2020 - 6.3 & 11.1 Defence against infectious diseases and Antibody production and vaccination
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1. What specifically about the antigen on blood cells result in a blood type being positive or negative?
ReplyDelete2. What other immune cells exist outside of T-cells, Macrophages, and B-cells (plasma/memory) and what is their role in the immune system?
3. From my understanding of specific immunity, Helper T cells are activated via the expression of the antigen on the macrophage and then seek a B cell with the binding spot that matches. What if this B-cell that has the specific antigen receptor does not exist? Do our bodies just naturally possess varying B cells with binding spots that match? Can the binding spot transform similar to the enzyme theory of Induced Fit?
To answer your second question, there are a lot of other immune cells, and more specific versions of the t-cells and b-cells. Here are a few:
Delete- Basophil: inflammation causes it to release histamines during allergic reactions
- Plasma B cell: Only produce one type of antibody per plasma cell
- Cytokine: Are cells that can either ramp up or slow down the immune system
- Dendritic cell: they help activate T and B lymphocytes.
- Eosinophil: Help fight infection and or cause inflamation
-Granulocyte: Release toxic material during a pathogen attack
- Mast cell: release histamines and help get rid of allergens
https://www.healio.com/hematology-oncology/learn-immuno-oncology/the-immune-system/components-of-the-immune-system
To answer the first question, the antigen is called the Rh, Rhesus (Rh) factor is an inherited protein found on the surface of red blood cells .if you have these Rh antigens then your blood is positive if you dont its negative. For example, if you have the A and Rh antigens, your blood type is A-positive (A+). If your blood has the B antigen but not the Rh antigen, your blood type is B-negative (B–)
DeleteFor your third question, these shapes that are recognized are called epitopes. The answer to your question regarding whether all antigens have epitopes is yes, all antigens have to have epitopes in order to be recognized by the other cells like T cells, B cells, antibodies, etc.
Delete1. Are your mucus membranes less effective in your nose if your nose is stuffy?
ReplyDelete2. Why does the blood in people with hemophilia not clot properly?
3. What in penicillin are people allergic to?
to answer number three Penicillin allergy occurs when your immune system becomes hypersensitive to the drug, mistakenly reacting to the drug as a harmful substance, as if it were a viral or bacterial infection. so once you are exposed to the medicine once your body can develop antibodies against Penicillin. So the next time you take penicillin your immune system flags it and elicits a response which causes the allergic
Deletemore info:
https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/penicillin-allergy/symptoms-causes/syc-20376222
To answer your second question, hemophilia is caused by a mutation in one of the genes on the X-chromosomes that is responsible for providing instruction to make the clotting factor proteins needed to create blood clots. The change/mutation can prevent the clotting protein from working properly or be missing altogether.
Deletehttps://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/hemophilia/facts.html#:~:text=Hemophilia%20is%20caused%20by%20a,located%20on%20the%20X%20chromosome.
For your first question, a stuffy nose or any nasal congestion is a product of inflamed mucous membranes. This is in a way kind of like your mucous membranes defending against bacteria or an infection. So, no I do not think that this would cause them to be any less effective.
Deletehttps://www.everydayhealth.com/sinus-health-guide/sinus-congestion-and-mucus.aspx
1. when a woman is pregnant and the woman and baby have an Rh incompatibility (positive or negative blood type) would the mothers antigens try to destroy the baby or does it not affect the pregnancy?
ReplyDelete2. Is it true that coconut water be used as a temporary blood transfusion? if so why?
3. Is there an immune response when a person gets burned? How are white blood cells and lymphocytes affected?
For your second question,
DeleteWhile there have been claims that coconut water is like blood plasma, this is not true. It is instead similar to the liquid that is inside red blood cells. However, it can still be used as a "quick fix" in dire situations, but is not very recommended.
https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2014/12/09/4143229.htm
1st question:
DeleteYes the mother's immune system will make antibodies to attack the baby's red blood cells to cross the placenta. It leads to hemolytic anemia
https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/rh-incompatibility#:~:text=a%20foreign%20substance.-,Your%20body%20will%20create%20antibodies%20(proteins)%20against%20the%20baby's%20Rh,problems%20during%20a%20first%20pregnancy.
For your third question, there is always a direct immune response to a burn injury because the skin is our outermost layer of protection. This type of injury would increase the production of white blood cells and decrease the amount of lymphocytes in the body.
Deletehttps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8489886/#:~:text=The%20immune%20response%20to%20burn,burn%20wound%20or%20pulmonary%20sepsis.
https://pediatricsnationwide.org/2018/10/22/lymphocyte-response-after-a-burn-predicts-infection/#:~:text=Burns%20cause%20profound%20changes%20in,reduction%20of%20the%20lymphocyte%20count.
When was the first zoonosis discovered? What was it?
ReplyDeleteHow are anti-histamines made?
Are all doctors required to follow steps to produce antibiotic resistance?
How do antibiotics work?
For your 4th question,
DeleteAntibiotics are either bactericidal(kill) or bacteriostatic(stop). Bacteriostatic antibiotics interfere with processes needed to multiply and for growth: metabolism/ enzyme activity, protein production, DNA replication. Bactericidal antibiotics by preventing bacteria from making a cell wall through transpeptidase.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X1GT2bKgci8
To answer your 1st question:
Delete"Rudolf Virchow, the most prominent physicians of the 19th century was the first to introduce the term "zoonosis" for infectious disease shared between humans and animals (Klauder, 1958). Prior to the 20th Century, the best known zoonoses were rabies, anthrax, glanders, tuberculosis, plague, yellow fever, influenza, and certain zoonotic parasitic diseases (Blancou and Meslin, 2000)"
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12140772_Brief_review_of_the_history_of_zoonoses#:~:text=Rudolf%20Virchow%2C%20the%20most%20prominent,animals%20(Klauder%2C%201958).
In regards to your second question, the first antihistamine was identified as a in compound F929 in guinea pigs because it reduced allergy symptoms in them when they were exposed to allergens. Compound F929 was deemed too toxic for humans, but opened the door for antihistamines to be made for clinical use. The first one was called Antergan in 1942 which was derived from F929.
Delete1. What is the Von Willebrand factor?
ReplyDelete2. HOW do antibodies neutralize a pathogen when it comes in contact with the antigen?
3. What is CD4?
4. What is the rhesus factor?
5. Is histamine still present in other inflammatory responses other than allergies? How does it function?
6. What type of vaccines are there?
7. Do all viruses work by making the host cell replicate its mRNA?
To answer your 4th questions, the rhesus factor is a protein that is inherited that is normally found on the surface of red blood cells. If you have the protein on your cells you are Rh positive if you don't then you are Rh negative. Rh positive is more common that negative.
Deletehttps://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/rh-factor/about/pac-20394960
For your first question,
DeleteThe Von Willebrand factor is a glycoprotein in blood plasma and helps with hemostasis by making sure factor VII doesn't degrade.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/von-willebrand-factor
to answer the 3rd question,
DeleteCD4 cells are a type of T cell that figh infections. A CD4 count is used to check the health of the immune system in people infected with HIV
https://medlineplus.gov/lab-tests/cd4-lymphocyte-count/
To answer question 6,
DeleteThe source I found tells me there are 4 different type of vaccines. These are:
- Biosynthetic Vaccines
-Live virus vaccines
-Toxoid Vaccines
-Killed Vaccines.
The Biosynthetic vaccine is when the little pieces of the virus are manmade in the vaccine.
A Live Virus vaccine is when they use strands of the virus but they are weakened.
A Toxoid Vaccine is when instead of containing parts of the virus, it contains the chemicals/toxins it contains.
A Killed Vaccines is when they just use a small part or only a protein from the virus in the vaccine.
^That was Joelle Zipp
DeleteFor your last question,
DeleteAll viruses work by having the host cell replicate mRNA to create the proteins and ultimately increase the viral load. however, the steps before this process differ. There are both RNA and DNA virus variations. DNA viruses typically use host cells proteins and enzymes to make additional RNA (mRNA) during the transcription phase which is used to direct protein synthesis. RNA viruses usually use the the RNA as a core template for synthesis of viral genomic RNA and mRNA. And like you stated, the viral mRNA is translated and directs the host to synthesis viral proteins.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/virus-infections-and-hosts/
For your second question,
DeleteAntibodies work to destroy pathogens via precipitation and making the antigens insoluble aiding in elimination. Antibodies agglutinate the pathogen to link cell-bound antigens together and causes clumping. Antibodies neutralize toxins by masking the dangerous parts of the pathogen. Antibodies also trigger a histamine release, which results in inflammation (more blood cell and more leukocytes) increasing immune mobility. Lastly, Antibodies' complement protein perforates the cell membrane and promotes cell lysis.
To answer your 5th question,
DeleteHistamine plays a role in the regulation of immune reactions, secretion of gastric acid, helps smooth muscle contraction around bronchi in the lungs, and acts as a neurotransmitter within the central nervous system.
Immune Reactions: Histamine binds to a diverse group of receptors "expressed variously on B and T lymphocytes, dendritic cells, macrophages and a variety of hematopoietic cells. Among other things, histamine influences immune cell maturation and activation, secretion of several cytokines, and chemotactic responses of cells".
Secretion of Gastric Acid: "One of the principle stimuli for secretion of acid by parietal cells is histamine, secreted from neighboring enterochromaffin cells. The histamine receptor on parietal cells is the H2 type, and blocking the binding of histamine to this receptor is a widely used method for suppressing gastric acid secretion".
Smooth Muscle Contraction: "Smooth muscle around bronchi in the lungs and within the intestinal tract respond to histmine stimulation by contraction, although the magnitude of response varies considerably among species. These effects also depend on which receptor is being bound by histamine; for example, the H2 receptor mediates bronchodilation. One of the first bioassays for histamine involved measuring contraction of guinea pig intestinal muscle. These effects on smooth muscle are manifest in a number of allergic reactions, for example, bronchocontriction in response to inhaled allergens".
Nervous System: "Histamine acts as a neurotransmitter within the central nervous system. The (histaminergic) neurons that secrete histmine are localized in small regions of the hypothalamus, but those neurons send axons widely throughout the brain. Histamine appears to modulate a number of important processes in the brain, including wakefulness, cognitive ability and food consumption".
http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/otherendo/histamine.html
1. How does sebum lower the skins pH levels?
ReplyDelete2. Can memory cells be destroyed or forgotten if the body does not encounter that specific antigen for awhile?
3. What are histamines?
4. How do scientist create weaker strains for vaccines?
For your third question,
DeleteHistamines are an amine molecule found throughout the body. They cause allergic symptoms when released by basophils or mast cells.
https://www.britannica.com/science/histamine and the Textbook.
To answer your first question, sebum controls the pH because an acidic film which has the pH of 4.5-6 is created over it when the lipids in the sebum is released. Here is the source I used: https://www.verywellhealth.com/what-is-sebum-1069375
Delete^That was Joelle Zipp
DeleteFor your 1st question,
DeleteThe skin has a thin protective layer on its surface known as the acid mantle. The acid mantle is made up of sebum (fatty acids) which is excreted from the sebaceous glands. These secretions mixes with the lactic and amino acids present in sweat which has a direct impact on skin pH. Skin pH should be slightly more acidic, and the rate of secretion from the sebaceous glands can impact pH.
https://www.healthline.com/health/whats-so-important-about-skin-ph
To answer your second question, I dont believe so they may die off after several decades but these cells live in the body for a long time, even after all the viruses from the first infection have been destroyed. At least this is what I found
Delete1. Can parents with positive blood types have children with negative blood types?
ReplyDelete2. Can vaccines be used for things other than viruses? Like bacterial infections?
3. Are there any ways that doctors / scientists are using to battle antibiotic resistance?
4. What will happen if hybridoma cells interact with cancer cells? Are they safe for the body?
5. (follow up to 4) What are other uses for the cells?
To answer your first question, it is possible for two people who are Rh-positive to produce a child that's Rh-negative but only if neither parent passes along Rhesus D. Or at least this is what I found
DeleteIn regards to your second question, most vaccines are used to prevent viral infection because it is harder to cure and vaccines for viruses are ostensibly easier to formulate. However, vaccines for bacterial disease such as Hib exist as well.
DeleteRegarding question 4, Hybridoma's to my understanding are antigen specific factory cells that can target "pathogens" based on the rapid production of specific antigens. In most cases the cells are never injected into treatment recipients although animals are the typical subjects for production of the antigens. In some cases humans have been subject to the live cells which leads to cancerous effects if left unmonitored over periods of time. The treatment is the removal of the manufacture tumor cells. These cells are a fusion of B and tumor cells. The tumor component of the hybridized cell allows for rapid and potentially infinite production of antigens which then lead to injectable antigens that are isolated as a byproduct which can be used as a therapeutic option for illnesses such as cancer.
DeleteAn extension to answer you Fifth question: Hybridomas' can also be used to treat toxin exposure and to virtually all of the 5 organic pathogens including viruses.
I mostly referred to diagrams they were easiest to understand but here's a link that explains the process in depth:https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/hybridoma
Except about toxin treatment concerning antibodies: https://mbio.asm.org/content/5/4/e01477-14
Excerpt about toxin*
Delete1) How many total vaccines do we have for viruses?
ReplyDelete2) Which blood type is most fertile? and What blood type lives the longest?
3) What is the safest antihistamine to take? and what are the risks?
4) Is Ebola a zoonotic disease?
To answer your 3rd question,
Delete"Loratadine, cetrizine, and fexofenadine all have excellent safety records. Their cardiovascular safety has been demonstrated in drug-interaction studies, elevated-dose studies, and clinical trials. These three antihistamines have also been shown safe in special populations, including pediatric and elderly patients."
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10748947/#:~:text=Loratadine%2C%20cetrizine%2C%20and%20fexofenadine%20all,including%20pediatric%20and%20elderly%20patients.
For your second question, According to a research study by Albert Einstein College of Medicine in New York and Yale University. Among 560 women in the age of maximum fertility, their follicle stimulating hormone levels were measured along with their blood type. A high FSH level indicates lower egg quality and lower count of eggs. The study found that women with O blood type are more likely to have a high FSH level than group A and AB.
DeleteTo answer your first question, I found a source that says there is about 20 vaccines that exist. Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/virus-vaccine#:~:text=There%20are%20about%2020%20safe,for%20use%20throughout%20the%20world.
Delete^Joelle Zipp
Delete1. How efficient are the antivirals that have been discovered?
ReplyDelete2. Have there been any failed Vaccines that caused a lot of people to be sick?
^Joelle Zipp
DeleteIn regards to your second question, there have been times in history where vaccines have failed and scientists learned from these mistakes. For example, some polio vaccines i’m the 1955 Cutter Incident were distributed with live poliovirus inside, which infected those it was administered to. As a result, vaccines undergo more vetting and clinical trials now.
Delete1. What types of technologies have been developed in vaccines and what are their respective advantages and disadvantages?
ReplyDelete2. Does your blood type give any advantage in terms of immunity?
3. How can antibiotic resistance be reduced?
In regards to the third question, Antibiotic resistance can be reduced by cycling effective antibiotics to prevent rapid mutation of bacterial colonies. As antibiotics weed out the weak, cycling treatments ensure a wide spread of solutions thus preventing unnecessary rapid mutation to one specific resistance genes that are harder to eradicate.
Delete1.Can parents pass down immunity of pathogens to their offspring, if so to what extent?
ReplyDelete2.Does blood type impact fertility and or lifespan?
3.What would be the evolutionary relevance of multiple blood types in humans?
4.How does the body rid itself of harmful pathogens once the molecular process is successful in
immobilizing the pathogen?